RAFALE The Destroyer
History
The Dassault Rafale (French
pronunciation: [ʁafal], literally meaning
"gust of wind",[11] and "burst of
fire" in a more military sense)[12] is a French twin-engine, canard delta wing, multirole fighter aircraft designed and built
by Dassault Aviation.
Equipped with a wide range of weapons, the Rafale is intended to perform air supremacy, interdiction, aerial reconnaissance, ground support, in-depth strike, anti-ship
strike and nuclear deterrence missions.
The Rafale is referred to as an "omnirole" aircraft by Dassault.
In the late 1970s, the French Air Force and Navy were seeking to replace and
consolidate their current fleets of aircraft. In order to reduce development
costs and boost prospective sales, France entered into an arrangement with UK,
Germany, Italy and Spain to produce an agile multi-purpose fighter, the Eurofighter Typhoon.
Subsequent disagreements over workshare and differing requirements led to
France's pursuit of its own development programme. Dassault built a technology demonstrator which first flew
in July 1986 as part of an eight-year flight-test programme, paving the way for
the go-ahead of the project. The Rafale is distinct from other European
fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely built by one country,
involving most of France's major defence contractors, such as Dassault, Thales and Safran.
Many of the aircraft's avionics and features, such as direct voice input,
the RBE2 AA active
electronically scanned array (AESA) radar and the optronique
secteur frontal infra-red search
and track (IRST) sensor, were domestically developed and
produced for the Rafale programme. Originally scheduled to enter service in
1996, the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post-Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities.
The aircraft is available in three main variants: Rafale C single-seat
land-based version, Rafale B twin-seat land-based version, and Rafale M
single-seat carrier-based version.
Introduced in 2001, the Rafale is being produced for both the
French Air Force and for carrier-based operations
in the French Navy. The Rafale has been marketed for export to several
countries, and was selected for purchase by the Indian Air Force, the Egyptian Air Force,
and the Qatar Air Force.
The Rafale has been used in combat over Afghanistan, Libya, Mali, Iraq and
Syria. Several upgrades to the weapons and avionics of the Rafale are planned
to be introduced by 2018.
Development
Origins
Logo for the Dassault Rafale programme
In the mid-1970s, both the French Air Force (Armée de l'Air)
and Navy (Marine Nationale) had requirements for a new generation of
fighters to replace those in or about to enter service.[14] Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce
cost, both departments issued a common request for proposal.[15] In 1975, the French Ministry of Aviation initiated studies
for a new aircraft to complement the upcoming and smaller Dassault Mirage 2000,
with each aircraft optimised for differing roles.[16]
In 1979, the French company Dassault joined the MBB/BAe "European Collaborative
Fighter" (ECA) project which was renamed the "European Combat Aircraft".[17] The French company contributed the aerodynamic layout of a
prospective twin-engine, single-seat fighter; however, the project collapsed in
1981 due to differing operational requirements of each partner country.[16] In 1983, the "Future European Fighter Aircraft"
(FEFA) programme was initiated, bringing together Italy, Spain, West Germany, France and the United Kingdom to
jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft
developments.[18]
A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and
the other four countries. Around 1984 France reiterated its requirement for
a carrier-capable version
and demanded a leading role. It also insisted on a swing-role fighter that was
lighter than the design favoured by the other four nations. West Germany, the
UK and Italy opted out and established a new EFA programme.[14][N 1] In Turin on 2 August 1985,
West Germany, the UK and Italy agreed to go ahead with the Eurofighter, and
confirmed that France, along with Spain, had chosen not to proceed as a member
of the project.[20][21] Despite pressure from France, Spain rejoined the
Eurofighter project in early September 1985. The four-nation project eventually
resulted in the development of the Eurofighter Typhoon.[22]
Design phase and prototype
In France, the government proceeded with its own programme.
The French
Ministry of Defence required an aircraft capable of air-to-air
and air-to-ground, all-day and
adverse weather operations. Unlike other contemporary European fighter projects
that required some level of international collaboration and cost-sharing, France
was the sole developer of the Rafale's airframe, avionics, propulsion system and armament,
and as such the aircraft was to replace a multitude of aircraft in the French Armed Forces.
The Rafale would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of
specialised platforms, including the Jaguar, Mirage F1C/CR/CT, Mirage 2000C/-5/N in
the Armée de l'air,
and the F-8P Crusader, Étendard IVP/M and Super
Étendard in the Aéronavale.[14][23]
During October–December 1978, prior to France's joining of the
ECA, Dassault received contracts for the development of project ACT 92 (Avion
de Combat Tactique, meaning "Tactical Combat Airplane"). The
following year, the National Office for Aviation Studies and Research began
studying the possible configurations of the new fighter under the
codename Rapace (meaning "Bird of Prey"). By March
1980, the number of configurations had been narrowed down to four, two of which
had a combination of canards, delta wings and a single vertical tail-fin.[16] In October 1982, the French Ministry of Defence announced
that Dassault would build a technology demonstrator named Avion
de Combat expérimental (Experimental Combat
Airplane), in short ACX. France wanted to collaborate with West
Germany and the UK on the project, but was prepared to build the ACX by itself.
In 1984, the government decided to proceed with a combat variant of the ACX due
to the conflicting technical criteria of the respective FEFA participant nations.[16][24]
The Dassault "Rafale A" technology
demonstrator in 2006
The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large-delta
winged fighter, with all-moving canards, embodying fly-by-wire (FBW) flight
control system.[14] Construction of the demonstrator commenced in March 1984,
even before a contract was signed with the DGA,
France's defence procurement
agency.[16] The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December
1985 in Saint-Cloud, and took
its maiden flight on
4 July 1986 from Istres-Le Tubé Air
Base in southern France.[14] During the one-hour flight, the project's chief test pilot Guy Mitaux-Maurouard took the
aircraft to an altitude of 11,000 metres (36,000 ft) and a speed of Mach 1.3. The 9.5-tonne (21,000 lb)
demonstrator stopped in 300 metres (980 ft) upon landing.[25]
Throughout the flight test programme, the Rafale A
performed numerous day and night take-offs and landings aboard the
carriers Clemenceau and Foch to
investigate the pilot's field of view during carrier operations. It reached a
speed of Mach 2 (2,450 km/h; 1,522 mph; 1,322.9 kn) and a
height of 13,000 metres (42,000 ft).[26] The demonstrator was initially powered by General Electric
F404-GE-400 afterburning turbofans
from the F/A-18
Hornet, instead of the Snecma M88, to reduce the risk that often
comes with a first flight, and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently
mature for the initial trials programme.[14][27] It was not until May 1990 when the M88 replaced the port
F404 in the demonstrator to enable the aircraft to reach Mach 1.4 and
demonstrate supercruise, or
sustained supersonic flight without
use of afterburners. After
865 flights with four pilots, Rafale A was retired in January 1994.[14][26][28]
At the time of the Rafale A's maiden flight, France entered
unsuccessful talks with Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway about a
possible collaboration on the Rafale as a multinational project; at the time,
Belgium was reportedly interested in the Rafale B. In June 1987, Prime Minister Jacques Chirac declared that the country
would proceed with the US$30 billion project. Subsequently, on 21 April
1988, the French government awarded Dassault a contract for four Rafale
prototypes: one Rafale C, two Rafale Ms and one Rafale B. The first out of an
expected 330 Rafales was scheduled to enter service in 1996.[29][30][31][32] However, the fall of the Berlin
Wall, which signalled the end of the Cold War, as well as the need to reduce the
national deficit, compelled the French government to drastically reduce its
defence budget; the 1994 budget for the Rafale programme was cut by US$340
million.[33][34]
This reduced the size of the Rafale orders, which Dassault
and other companies involved claimed impeded production management and led to
higher costs, and delayed the entry of the aircraft into service. The French
Air Force was reorganised, the Mirage 5F was completely phased out and a total
of 55 Mirage F1Cs were upgraded to a tactical fighter configuration,
redesignated as Mirage F1CT. The budget cuts prolonged the Rafale's development
considerably.[14][35][36]
During the Rafale A flight test programme, the French government
in 1989 looked at the F/A-18 Hornet as a potential replacement for the rapidly
aging F-8 Crusader, which
had been serving since the 1950s. The French Navy entered purchase of
second-hand F/A-18s with Australia, Canada and the US, after the decision was
made not to upgrade the Crusaders. The US Navy agreed to supply two F/A-18s to
the French Navy for "interoperability testing" aboard the French
aircraft carrier Foch. The French government did not proceed with a
purchase of the twin-engine fighter.[37][38]
Testing
A two-seater Rafale B during an aerial
refueling
To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft, the Air
Force required two variants: the single-seat "Rafale C" (chasseur,
meaning "fighter" or literally "hunter") and the
"Rafale B" (biplace, or two-seater). The prototype of the C
model (designated C01) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991, signalling
the start of a test programme which primarily aimed to test the M88-2 engines, man-machine interface and weapons, and
expand the flight envelope.[39] Due to budget constraints, the second single-seat
prototype was never built.[40]
The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although
superficially identical to the technology demonstrator, it was smaller and more
stealthy due to the gold-coated canopy, a re-design of the fuselage-fin joint,
and the addition of radar-absorbent
materials (RAM). This aircraft also saw extensive application
of composite and
other materials, which both reduced the radar cross-section (RCS)
and weight. Moreover, Dassault opted to reject variable engine inlets and a
dedicated air brake,
which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight.[41] The B01, the only prototype of the two-seat B variant,
made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993.[39] It was 350 kilograms (770 lb) heavier than the
single-seater, but carried 400 litres (110 US gal) less fuel. The
aircraft was used for weapon-systems testing. Later it was tasked with
validating weapon separation and, specifically, the carriage of heavy loads.
The aircraft's typical loadout consisted of two 2,000-litre
(530 US gal) external tanks, two Apache/Scalp cruise missiles, in addition to four air-to-air missiles.[42]
A French Navy Rafale M with tail hook deployed
during landing aboard USS Theodore
Roosevelt
The Navy, meanwhile, sought a carrier-based aircraft to
supersede its fleet of ageing Étendard IV Ms & Ps, F-8P Crusaders and Super
Étendard Modernisés. While the Navy initially modernised the
Crusaders, in the long term, the requirement was met with the navalised Rafale
M. The M01, the naval prototype, first flew on 12 December 1991, followed by
the second on 8 November 1993.[39][43] Since France had no land-based catapult test facility,
catapult trials were initially carried out between during July–August 1992 and
early the following year, at NAS
Lakehurst in New Jersey. The aircraft then carried out
trials aboard the carrier Foch in April 1993. Flown by
Dassault's chief test pilot, Yves Kerhervé, M02 made its maiden flight in
November that year, while the first prototype completed the third round of
testing at Lakehurst in November and December 1993.[44]
Production and upgrades
Initially, the Rafale B was to be just a trainer, but the Gulf War showed that a second crew member
was invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions.
Therefore, in 1991 the Air Force switched its preferences towards the
two-seater, announcing that the variant would constitute 60 percent of the
Rafale fleet.[45] The service originally envisaged taking delivery of 250
Rafales, but this was initially revised downwards to 234 aircraft, made up of
95 "A" and 139 "B" models",[43][46] and later to 212 aircraft.[45] The Navy, meanwhile, had 60 Rafales on order, down from 86
due to budget cuts.[43][45] Of the 60, 25 would be M single-seaters and 35 two-seat
Ns,[46] though the two-seater was later cancelled.[26]
Production of the first aircraft series formally started in
December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic
uncertainty. Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of
Defence and Dassault agreed on a 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options)
production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007.[45] A further order of 59 F3 Rafales was announced in December
2004.[47] In November 2009 the French government ordered an
additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and
Navy to 180.[48]
During the Rafale's design phase, Dassault took advantage
of Dassault Systèmes' CATIA (Computer
Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application), a three-dimensional computer-aided design, manufacture and engineering software suite that would become standard
across the industry.[49] CATIA enabled digitisation and efficiency improvements
throughout the Rafale programme, as it implemented recently developed processes
such as digital mockup and product data
management. It consisted of 15 GB databases of each of the
Rafale's components, assisting with various aspects of the design, manufacture
and through-life support.[49]
The Rafale final assembly site is located
adjacent to Bordeaux–Mérignac
Airport
According to the French magazine L'Usine nouvelle, apart from several
non-sensitive components sourced from the United States, the Rafale is manufactured
almost entirely in France. Different elements are produced in numerous
factories across the country, and final assembly takes place near Bordeaux–Mérignac
Airport. For example, the flight control
surfaces are fabricated in Haute-Savoie, the wings and avionics in
Gironde, the centre fuselage in Val-d'Oise, and the engines in Essonne.[50] Roughly 50 percent of the Rafale is produced by Dassault
and the other half divided between two major partners, Thales and Safran, who rely on a network of 500 subcontractors. Altogether, the programme
employs 7,000 workers. As of 2012, the fabrication process of each fighter took
24 months, with an annual production rate of eleven aircraft.[50]
Deliveries of the Rafale's naval version were a high priority to
replace the Navy's considerably aged F-8 Crusaders, and so the first production
model for the French Navy undertook its first flight on 7 July 1999.[51] Their first naval deployment was in 2002 on board Charles
de Gaulle; by March 2002, the aircraft carrier was stationed in
the Gulf of Oman, where
its complement of Rafales undertook training operations.[52] In December 2004, the Air Force received its first three
F2 standard Rafale Bs at the Centre d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM,
i.e. the Military Air Experiment Centre) at Mont-de-Marsan, where they were tasked to
undertake operational evaluation and pilot conversion training.[43]
The total programme cost, as of FY2013, was around
€45.9 billion,[10] which translated to a unit programme cost of approximately
€160.5 million. This figure takes in account improved hardware of the F3 standard,
and which includes development costs over a period of 40 years, including
inflation.[53] The unit flyaway price as of 2010 was
€101.1 million for the F3+ version.[54]
In 2008, French officials were reportedly considering equipping
the Rafale to launch miniaturised
satellites.[55] In 2011, upgrades under consideration included a software
radio and satellite link, a new laser-targeting pod, smaller bombs and
enhancements to the aircraft's data-fusion capacity.[56] In July 2012, fleetwide upgrades of the Rafale's
battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced.[57][58]
In January 2014, Defence Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian announced
that €1 billion is allocated towards the development of the F3R standard.
The standard will see the integration of the Meteor BVR missile, among other
weapons and software updates. The standard was to be validated by 2018.[59][60] The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force's primary
combat aircraft until 2040 or later,[61] until replacement by the Franco-German New Generation
Fighter.
Future replacement
In 2018, Dassault announced the successor to the Rafale as
the New Generation
Fighter. This fighter aircraft under development by Dassault Aviation and Airbus Defence and
Space, is to replace France's Rafale, Germany's Eurofighter Typhoon,
and Spain's F/A-18 Hornet in the 2035-40 timeframe.[62]
Design
Overview
The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very
high level of agility; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close-coupled
canard to maximize manoeuvrability. The aircraft is capable of
withstanding from −3.6g to 9g (10.5g on
Rafale solo display and a maximum of 11g can be reached in case of
emergency[63][64]). The Rafale is an aerodynamically unstable aircraft and
uses digital fly-by-wire flight
controls to artificially enforce and maintain stability.[64][N 2] The aircraft's canards also act to reduce the minimum
landing speed to 115 knots (213 km/h;
132 mph); while in flight, airspeeds as low as 15 knots (28 km/h;
17 mph) have been observed during training missions.[64] According to simulations by Dassault, the Rafale has
sufficient low speed performance to operate from STOBAR-configured aircraft carriers, and can
take off using a ski-jump with no modifications.[66]
The Rafale M features a greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the additional
stresses of naval landings, an arrestor hook, and "jump strut"
nosewheel, which only extends during short takeoffs, including catapult launches.[39] It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing
system, and the new fin-tip Telemir system for syncing the inertial
navigation system to external equipment.[42] Altogether, the naval modifications of the Rafale M
increase its weight by 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) compared to other
variants.[44] The Rafale M retains about 95 percent commonality with Air Force variants
including,[67] although unusual for carrier-based aircraft, being unable
to fold its multi-spar wings to reduce storage space. The size constraints were
offset by the introduction of Charles de Gaulle, France's first nuclear-powered
carrier, which was considerably larger than previous carriers, Foch and Clemenceau.[42]
Radar signature
S-duct air intake
conceals jet engine blades from radar waves, and serrated patterns reduce
frontal RCS
Although not a full-aspect stealth aircraft, the cost of which was viewed
as unacceptably excessive, the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross-section (RCS)
and infrared signature .[68][69] In order to reduce the RCS, changes from the initial
technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail-fin,
fuselage reshaping, repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft's
wing, and the extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of
the trailing edges of the wings and canards.[61][68] Seventy percent of the Rafale's surface area is composite.[70] Many of the features designed to reduce the Rafale's
visibility to threats remain classified.[65]
Cockpit
The Rafale's glass cockpit was designed around the
principle of data fusion—a
central computer intelligently selects and prioritises information to display
to pilots for simpler command and control.[71] The primary flight controls are arranged in a hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)-compatible
configuration, with a right-handed side-stick controller and a left-handed
throttle.[72] The seat is inclined rearwards at an angle of 29° to
improve g-force tolerance during manoeuvring and
to provide a less restricted external pilot view.[73] An intelligent flight suit worn by the pilot is
automatically controlled by the aircraft to counteract in response to
calculated g-forces.[74]
Forward section of Rafale on display at
the Paris Air Show,
2005
Great emphasis has been placed on pilot workload minimisation
across all operations.[65] Among the features of the highly digitised cockpit is an
integrated direct voice input (DVI)
system, allowing a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by spoken voice
commands, simplifying the pilot's access to many of the controls.[72] Developed by Crouzet,
the DVI is capable of managing radio communications and countermeasures systems,
the selection of armaments and radar modes, and controlling navigational
functions.[75] For safety reasons, DVI is deliberately not employed for
safety-critical elements of the aircraft's operation, such as the final release
of armaments.[76]
For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors
across the aircraft, the cockpit features a wide-angle holographic head-up display (HUD) system, two
head-down flat-panel colour multi-function
displays (MFDs) as well as a central collimated display. These displays have
been strategically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment.[77] Some displays feature a touch interface for ease of human–computer
interaction (HCI).[16] A head-mounted display (HMD)
remains to be integrated to take full advantage of its MICA missiles.[72][78][79] The cockpit is fully compatible with night vision goggles (NVG).[72]
In the area of life support,
the Rafale is fitted with a Martin-Baker Mark 16F
"zero-zero" ejection seat,
capable of operation at zero speed and zero altitude. An on-board oxygen generating
system, developed by Air Liquide, eliminates the need to carry
bulky oxygen canisters.[80] The Rafale's flight computer has been programmed to
counteract pilot disorientation and to employ automatic recovery of the
aircraft during negative flight conditions. The auto-pilot and autothrottle controls are also
integrated, and are activated by switches located on the primary flight
controls.[72]
Avionics and equipment
The Rafale core avionics systems employ an integrated
modular avionics (IMA), called MDPU (modular data processing
unit). This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as
the flight management
system, data fusion, fire control, and the man-machine interface.[65][N 3] The total value of the radar, electronic communications
and self-protection equipment is about 30 percent of the cost of the entire
aircraft.[81] The IMA has since been installed upon several upgraded
Mirage 2000 fighters,[82] and incorporated into the civilian airliner, the Airbus A380.[83] According to Dassault, the IMA greatly assists combat
operations via data fusion, the continuous integration and analysis of the
various sensor systems throughout the aircraft, and has been designed for the
incorporation of new systems and avionics throughout the Rafale's service life.[65]
Annotated diagram of SPECTRA's elements
The Rafale features an integrated defensive-aids system named SPECTRA, which protects the aircraft against
airborne and ground threats, developed as a joint venture between Thales
and MBDA.[84] Various methods of detection, jamming,
and decoying have
been incorporated, and the system has been designed to be highly reprogrammable
for addressing new threats and incorporating additional sub-systems in the
future.[85][N 4] Operations over Libya were greatly assisted by SPECTRA,
allowing Rafales to perform missions independently from the support of
dedicated Suppression
of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) platforms.[86]
The Rafale's ground attack capability is heavily reliant upon
sensory targeting pods,[87] such as Thales Optronics's Reco New Generation/Areos
reconnaissance pod and Damocles electro-optical/laser designation pod.[81] Together, these systems provide targeting information,
enable tactical reconnaissance missions, and are integrated with the Rafale's
IMA architecture to provide analysed data feeds to friendly units and ground
stations, as well as to the pilot.[88] Damocles provides targeting information to the various
armaments carried by the Rafale and is directly integrated with the
Rafale's VHF/UHF secure
radio to communicate target information with other aircraft. It also performs
other key functions such as aerial optical surveillance and is integrated with
the navigation system as a FLIR.[88]
The Damocles designation pod was described as "lacking
competitiveness" when compared to rivals such as the Sniper and LITENING pods;[89] so work began on an upgraded pod, designated Damocles XF,
with additional sensors and added ability to transmit live video feeds.[90] A new Thales targeting pod, the Talios, was officially
unveiled at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show[91] and is expected to be integrated on the Rafale by 2018.[92] Thales' Areos reconnaissance pod is an all-weather,
night-and-day-capable reconnaissance system employed on the Rafale, and
provides a significantly improved reconnaissance capability over preceding
platforms.[93][N 5] Areos has been designed to perform reconnaissance under
various mission profiles and condition, using multiple day/night sensors and
its own independent communications datalinks.[88]
Radar and sensors
The Rafale was first outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive
electronically scanned multi-mode radar. Thales claims to have
achieved increased levels of situational awareness as compared to earlier
aircraft through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for
close combat and long-range interception, as well as real-time generation of
three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and
the real-time generation of high resolution
ground maps for navigation and targeting.[94] In early 1994, it was reported that technical difficulties
with the radar had delayed the Rafale's development by six months.[69] In September 2006, Flight International reported
the Rafale's unit cost had significantly increased due to additional
development work to improve the RBE2's detection range.[95]
The OSF is
visible above the nose cone, below the
windscreen and to the side of the refueling probe
The RBE2 AA active
electronically scanned array (AESA) radar now replaces the
previous passively scanned RBE2. The RBE2 AA is reported to deliver a greater
detection range of 200 km,[96] improved reliability and reduced maintenance demands over
the preceding radar.[97] A Rafale demonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has
totaled 100 flight hours as of December 2011. By December 2009, production of
the pre-series RBE2 AA radars was underway.[93] In early October 2012, the first Rafale equipped with an
RBE2 AA radar arrived at Mont-de-Marsan Air Base for operational service (the
development was described by Thales and Dassault as "on time and on
budget").[97] By early 2014, the first Air Force front-line squadron
were supposed to receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar, following the
French Navy which was slated to receive AESA-equipped Rafales starting in 2013.[98]
To enable the Rafale to perform in the air supremacy role, it
includes several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical
system or Optronique
Secteur Frontal (OSF), developed by Thales, is completely
integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths.[99] The OSF enables the deployment of infrared missiles such
as the MICA at beyond visual range distances;
it can also be used for detecting and identifying airborne targets, as well as
those on the ground and at sea.[100] Dassault describes the OSF as being immune to jamming and
capable of providing covert long-range surveillance.[94] In 2012, an improved version of the OSF was deployed
operationally.[97]
Armaments and standards
Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ("France
1") standard, these had been equipped for the air-to-air interceptor
combat duties, but lacked any armaments for air-to-ground operations.[101] Later deliveries were to the "F2" standard,
which added the capability for conducting both air-to-ground and reconnaissance
operations; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in
May 2006.[102] Starting in 2008 onwards, Rafale deliveries have been to
the nuclear-capable F3 standard, and it has been reported that all aircraft
built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s.[72][79]
Weapons of the Rafale
F3 standard Rafales are capable of undertaking many different
mission roles with a range of equipment, namely air defence/superiority
missions with Mica IR and EM air-to-air missiles, and precision ground attacks
typically using SCALP EG cruise
missiles and AASM Hammer
air-to-surface armaments. In addition, anti-shipping missions could be carried
out using the AM39 Exocet sea skimming missile, while
reconnaissance flights would use a combination of onboard and external
pod-based sensor equipment. Furthermore, the aircraft could conduct nuclear
strikes when armed with ASMP-A missiles.[103] In 2010, France ordered 200 MBDA Meteor beyond-visual-range
missiles which will greatly increase the distance at which the
Rafale can engage aerial targets when the missile enters service.[104][105]
For compatibility with armaments of varying types and origins,
the Rafale's onboard store management system is compliant with MIL-STD-1760, an electrical interface between
an aircraft and its carriage stores, thereby simplifying the incorporation of
many of their existing weapons and equipment.[65] The Rafale is typically outfitted with 14 hardpoints (only 13 on Rafale M version),
five of which are suitable for heavy armaments or equipment such as auxiliary
fuel tanks, and has a maximum external load capacity of nine tons. In addition
to the above equipment, the Rafale carries the 30 mm GIAT 30 revolver cannon and can be
outfitted with a range of laser-guided bombs and ground-attack munitions.[65] According to Dassault, the Rafale's onboard mission
systems enable ground attack and air-to-air combat operations to be carried out
within a single sortie, with many functions capable of simultaneous execution
in conjunction with another, increasing survivability and versatility.[65]
Engines
Closeup of the rear of the airframe and the
two engine nozzles
Rafale B in a clean configuration
The Rafale is fitted with two Snecma M88 engines, each capable
of providing up to 50 kilonewtons (11,000 pounds-force) of dry thrust and
75 kN (17,000 lbf) with afterburners. The engines feature
several advances, including a non-polluting combustion chamber, single-crystal
turbine blades, powder metallurgy disks,
and technology to reduce radar and infrared signatures.[65] The M88 enables the Rafale to supercruise while carrying
four missiles and one drop tank.[107][108]
Qualification of the M88-2 engine ended in 1996 and the first
production engine was delivered by the end of the year.[109] Due to delays in engine production, the Rafale A
demonstrator was initially powered by the General Electric F404 engine.[14][110] In May 2010, a Rafale flew for the first time with the
M88-4E engine, an upgraded variant with greater thrust and lower maintenance
requirements than the preceding M88-2.[111] The engine is of a modular design for ease of construction
and maintenance and to enable older engines to be retrofitted with improved
subsections upon availability, such as existing M88-2s being upgraded to M88-4E
standard.[109] There has been interest in more powerful M88 engines by
potential export customers, such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE).[112] As of 2007, a thrust vectoring variant of the engine
designated as M88-3D was also under development.[101]
Operational history
France
French Naval Aviation
Two Rafale Ms aboard USS Harry S.
Truman in 2008
In December 2000, the French Naval Aviation (Aéronavale),
the air arm of the French Navy, received its first two Rafale M fighters. On 18
May the following year, the squadron Flottille 12F, which had
previously operated the F-8 Crusader, became the first squadron to operate the
Rafale after it was officially re-activated prior to the delivery of the sixth Rafale.[113] Flottille 12F immediately participated
in Trident d'Or aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de
Gaulle with warships from ten other nations. During the maritime exercise, the Navy tested the
Rafale's avionics during simulated interceptions with various foreign aircraft,
in addition to carrier take-offs and landings.[113][114] After almost four years of training, the Rafale M was
declared operational with the French Navy in June 2004.[115]
The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French
Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.[116] On 4 June 2010, during an exercise on USS Harry S.
Truman, a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a
foreign navy to have its engine replaced on board an American aircraft carrier.[117]
In 2002, the Rafales were first deployed to a combat zone; seven
Rafale Ms embarked aboard Charles de Gaulle of the French Navy
during "Mission Héraclès",
the French participation in "Operation
Enduring Freedom". They flew from the aircraft carrier over
Afghanistan, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the
Rafale did not see any action. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was
in the Arabian Sea, Rafales conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan
border.[16][118]
In 2016, Rafales operating from Charles de Gaulle struck
targets associated with the Islamic
State of Iraq and the Levant.[119]
In December 2015, American and French military officials
reportedly discussed the possibility of French naval Rafale Ms flying combat
missions from a US Navy Nimitz-class aircraft carrier as soon as
January 2017. This would enable continued French Navy operations against ISIL
while Charles de Gaulle undergoes its year-and-a-half-long
major refit, scheduled to begin in early 2017. Although Rafales have launched
and landed on U.S. carriers to demonstrate interoperability, it would be the
first time they would fly combat missions from one. As many as 18 Rafale Ms
could be deployed on a carrier, although some room would have to be made for
French Navy support crews familiar with maintaining the Rafale, as well as for
spare parts and munitions.[120] Operation Chesapeake, a test of this interoperability, was
conducted in May 2018, when 12 Rafales of Flottilles 11F, 12F, and 17F, along with nearly 350 support personnel
embarked aboard USS George
H.W. Bush for two weeks of carrier qualifications and
exercises after conducting a month of shore based training at Naval Air Station
Oceana.[121]
French Air Force
Formation of five Rafales making a flypast in
2006
Rafales were delivered to the French Air Force several years
after the naval variant, initially with the Centre d'Expériences
Aériennes Militaires (French Air Force Evaluation Centre) at
Mont-de-Marsan Air Base in the trials and training role. By this time, it was
expected that Escadron de Chasse (Fighter
Squadron) 1/7 at Saint-Dizier would receive a
nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, in preparation for full
operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground
precision attack capabilities) starting from mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 would
have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters).[115][122]
In 2007, after a "crash program" enhancement six
Rafales were given the ability to drop laser-guided bombs, in view of engaging
them in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were
deployed to Dushanbe in
Tajikistan, while the three others were Rafale Marine of the
Navy on board Charles De Gaulle.[123] The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the
first GBU-12 was launched on 28 March in
support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking the
operational début of the Rafale.[124] Between January 2009 and December 2011, a minimum of three
Rafales were stationed at Kandahar
International Airport to conduct combat operations in support
of NATO ground forces.[125]
On 19 March 2011, French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance
and strike missions
over Libya in Opération Harmattan,
in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973; initial
targets were artillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city of Benghazi.[126] The Rafale could operate in Libya without the support of
SEAD aircraft, using the onboard SPECTRA self-defence system instead.[86] On 24 March 2011, it was reported that a Rafale had
destroyed a Libyan Air
Force G-2/Galeb light
attack/trainer aircraft on the runway.[127]
During the conflict, Rafales typically conducted six-hour
sorties over Libyan airspace, carrying an armament of four MICA air-to-air
missiles, four or six AASM "Hammer" bombs, a Thales Damoclès targeting pod and two
drop tanks;[86] these patrols required multiple aerial refuelling
operations per sortie from coalition tanker aircraft.[128] The AASM precision-guidance weapon system, using bombs
weighing between 125 kilograms (280 lb) and 1,000 kg (2,200 lb),
allowed the Rafale to conduct high-altitude bombing missions.[128] Reportedly, Rafale crews preferred to use GPS-guided
munitions due to greater reliability and range. Storm Shadow SCALP weapons were deployed on only one
or two sorties, including one against a Libyan airbase at Al-Jufra.[129] In 2011, aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that
the Rafale's performance in Libya is likely to be pivotal to its export future,
reporting that the Rafale had maintained a high operational rate throughout the
deployment. Hoyle also noted that the Libyan combat experience had caused
several urgent operational requirements to present themselves, such as the need
for a lighter ground-attack munition and to modify the AASM weapon to be more
effective in the close air support role.[128]
A French Air Force Rafale B during Operation Serval in Mali, 2013
In January 2013, the Rafale took part in "Opération Serval",
the French military intervention in support
to the government of Mali against the Movement
for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa.[130] The first mission was carried out on 13 January, when four
Rafales took off from an airbase in France to strike rebel training camps,
depots and facilities in the city of Gao,
eastern Mali.[131] Subsequent airstrikes in the following days by Rafale and
Mirage fighters were reportedly instrumental in the withdrawal of Islamist
militant forces from Timbuktu and Douentza.[132] Both Rafale and Mirage 2000D aircraft used in the conflict
have been based outside of North Africa, making use of aerial refuelling tanker
aircraft to fly long range sorties across Algerian airspace and into Mali.[133]
In August 2013, it was proposed that France may halve the number
of Rafales to be delivered over the next six years for a total of 26 aircraft
to be delivered during this period; foreign export procurements have been
viewed as critical to maintain production under this proposal. While production
would be slowed, France would still receive the same number of Rafales overall.[134]
In September 2014, Rafales began flying reconnaissance missions
over Iraq as part of Opération Chammal,
France's contribution to the international effort to combat Islamic
State (IS) militants. Six (later nine) Rafales were initially
tasked with identifying IS positions in support of US
airstrikes, flying from Al Dhafra Air Base,
UAE.[135][136] On 18 September, Rafales joined American operations in
conducting attacks, launching four strikes near the Northern Iraqi town
of Zummar that destroyed a logistics depot
and killed dozens of IS fighters.[137][138]
In April 2018, during the Syrian Civil War, five Rafale B fighters from
the Escadron de
Chasse 1/4 Gascogne participated in the 2018
missile strikes against Syria. Each jet was loaded with two SCALP EG missiles.[139]
The Country Who Has Rafale
Egypt
In November 2014, it was reported by several sources, including
the French newspaper La Tribune that
Egypt was in negotiations with France to purchase 24 to 36 Rafales, subject to
the financing agreement.[140] By February 2015, the two countries were negotiating a
loan from France's export credit agency to reach an export agreement for up to
24 Rafale fighters. Egypt hoped to complete deal quickly to have aircraft on
display at the inauguration of the Suez Canal expansion in August 2015.[141]
On 16 February 2015, Egypt became the Rafale's first
international customer when it officially ordered 24 Rafales,[142] as part of a larger deal (including a FREMM multipurpose
frigate and a supply of missiles) worth US$5.9 billion
(€5.2 billion).[143][144][145] Egypt's order has 8 single-seat models and 16 two-seaters.
In July 2015, the official ceremony, marking the acceptance by Egypt of its
first three Rafales, was held at the Dassault Aviation flight test center
in Istres.[146] In January 2016, Egypt received three more Rafales for a
total of six fighters.[147] All six aircraft are two-seat models (Rafale DM) and were
diverted from delivery to the French Air Force.[148] Egypt received the third batch of three Rafale fighter
jets flown solely by Egyptian pilots from France in April 2017. This marked the
joining of the single-seat model (Rafale EM) to the Egyptian Air Force.[7] Egypt took delivery of the fourth batch of two Rafale EM
fighter jets in July 2017.[149] The fifth batch comprising the last 3 Rafale EMs was
delivered to the Air Force in November the same year, increasing the number of
aircraft in service to 14 Rafales.[150]
In June 2016, Egypt started negotiations with Dassault to
acquire 12 additional Rafales which was an option on the original contract.[151][152] An Egyptian delegation visited France in November 2017 to
move negotiations forward, with a deal for the additional dozen possible before
year-end.[153]
Qatar
A Qatari Dassault Rafale at Bordeaux–Mérignac
Airport in 2019.
From January 2011 the Qatar Emiri Air Force evaluated
the Rafale alongside the Boeing
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, the Boeing
F-15E, the Eurofighter Typhoon,
and the Lockheed
Martin F-35 Lightning II to replace its then inventory of Dassault Mirage
2000-5s. By June 2014, Dassault had claimed it was close to signing
a contract with Qatar for 72 Rafales.[154] On 30 April 2015, Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al
Thani announced to French President François Hollande that
Qatar would order 24 Rafale with an option to buy 12 more aircraft.[155] On 4 May, the contract worth €6.3 billion ($7.02 billion)
for 24 Rafales was completed. In addition to the 24 aircraft, the price tag
includes the provision for long-range cruise missiles and Meteor missiles as
well as the training of 36 Qatari pilots and 100 technicians by the French
military and a number of Qatari intelligence officers. With all those elements
included, the price can be viewed as €263M for each aircraft.[156][157] The option for 12 more Rafale aircraft was exercised on 7
December 2017 for €1.1 billion (or €92M each) while adding an additional option
for 36 further jets.[158] The first Qatari Rafale was delivered in February 2019.[159][160]
India
Main articles: Rafale deal and Indian MRCA
competition
The Rafale was one of the six aircraft competing in the Indian MRCA
competition for 126 multirole fighters. Originally, the Mirage
2000 had been considered for the competition, but Dassault withdrew it in
favour of the Rafale.[161] In February 2011, French Rafales flew demonstrations in
India, including air-to-air combat against Su-30MKIs.[162] In April 2011, the Indian Air Force (IAF) shortlisted the
Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the US$10.4 billion contract.[163] On 31 January 2012, the IAF announced the Rafale as the
preferred bidder.[164][165] It was proposed that 18 Rafales would be supplied to the
IAF by 2015 in fly-away condition, while the remaining 108 would be
manufactured by Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India under transfer of technology agreements.[166][167] The contract for 126 Rafales, services, and parts may have
been worth up to US$20 billion.[168][169]
Rafale taxies to the runway for take off
during Aero India 2011.
The deal stalled due to disagreements over production in India.
Dassault refused to take responsibility for the 108 HAL-manufactured Rafales,
as it had reservations about the ability of HAL to accommodate the complex
manufacturing and technology transfers of the aircraft. Instead, Dassault said
it would have to negotiate two separate production contracts by both companies.
The Indian Defence
Ministry instead wanted Dassault to be solely responsible for
the sale and delivery of all 126 aircraft.[170][171] In May 2013, The Times of India reported
that negotiations were "back on track", with plans for the first 18
Rafales to be delivered in 2017.[172] Another point of contention was a provision where Dassault
was to reinvest 50 percent of the deal's earnings into India's defence sectors,
either through purchases or technological expertise.[173][174] In March 2014, the two sides were reported to have agreed
that the first 18 aircraft would be delivered to India in flying condition and
that the remaining 108 would be 70 percent built by HAL.[175] In December 2014, it was reported that India and France
expect to sign a contract by March 2015.[176]
In April 2015, during Prime Minister Narendra Modi's visit to Paris, India
requested the rapid delivery of 36 Rafales in fly-away condition.[177][178] Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar stated that these
will be inducted into the IAF within two years.[179] India officially withdrew the 126-aircraft MMRCA tender on
30 July 2015.[180] Shortly after, India and France missed the July target of
finalising the 36-aircraft agreement. The previously-agreed-upon terms in April
totaled US$8 billion for 36 aircraft costing $200 million each, with an offset
requirement of 30 percent of the deal's value for France to reinvest in India's
defense sector and create infrastructure in India for the Rafale to operate.
India is insisting on a 50 percent offset and two bases, which France says will
increase price and require separate infrastructure and two sets of maintenance,
training, and armament storage facilities.[181] In January 2016, the Indian government directed the Indian Navy to undertake detailed
briefings with Dassault regarding the Rafale, in a potential start to
procurement of the naval version for its aircraft carriers. The government
wants commonalities between logistics and spares for fighters with the Navy and
Air Force, which could lead to a buy of 54 naval fighters.[182] Dassault CEO Eric Trappier said in an Interview that
Indian Navy may order up to 57 Rafales.[183] On 23 September 2016, Indian Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar and his French
counterpart Jean-Yves Le Drian signed
the contract for the purchase of 36 off-the-shelf Rafales in a deal worth €7.8
billion with an option for 18 more at the same inflation-adjusted price.[184] The first Rafales are expected to be delivered by 2019,
and India is set to have all 36 jets within six years.[185] The deal includes weapons and spares; the aircraft will be
equipped with Meteor BVRAAM
missiles.[186][187] India is considering ordering 36 more aircraft as of
August 2017 due to growing tensions with China.[188]
The Indian opposition party led by Rahul Gandhi has raised an issue over
Dassault partnering with Anil Ambani's Reliance Defence, a private
company instead of state owned HAL. This was further corroborated by media
reports that alleged that Dassault was not given an option, and had to choose
Reliance Defence as the partnering firm.[189][190] As a result, both French government and Dassault issued a
press release stating it was Dassault's decision to choose Reliance Defence.[191][192][importance?]. Rahul Gandhi's party spokesperson Manish Tewari asked for details of the
agreement to be made public and questioned if there was an escalation of
per-aircraft cost from ₹7.15 billion to ₹16 billion.[193] In November 2018, Congress alleged that procurement
procedures were bypassed in acquisition of Rafale aircraft. A PIL was filed in
the Supreme Court seeking an independent probe into decision to procure 36
Rafale jets and their cost. On 14 December 2018, based on all pricing details
along with steps that closed the deal, the Apex Court dismissed all petitions
stating it found no irregularities in purchase of the jets.[194] In March 2019, Indian government officials asked for
Rafales to replace its ageing MiG-21s and to counter Pakistan's newer F-16s.[195] Ahead of the formal handing over of the first Rafale
fighter to India on 8 October 2019, the IAF accepted the aircraft at the Bordeaux
manufacturing facility of Dassault Aviation in France. The twin-seat jet has
tail number "RB-001" to mark the role played by IAF chief-designate
Air Marshal RKS Bhadauria in
finalising the deal in 2016. Defence minister Rajnath Singh and his French
counterpart will be at the official induction ceremony in France.[196]
Potential operators
Analysts view the relatively quick series of 84[197] orders from Egypt and Qatar as being influenced by
the Arab Spring and uncertainty of US
involvement in the Middle East.[198]
Finland
In June 2015, a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed
starting the so-called HX program to replace the Finnish Air Force's current fleet
of F/A-18
Hornets. The group recognises five potential types: Boeing
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed
Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen.[199]
In December 2015 Finnish MoD sent a letter to Great Britain,
France, Sweden and the United States where it informed that the fighter project
was launched in the Defence Forces. The goal of the project is to replace the
Hornet fleet, which will be decommissioned as of 2025, with multi-role
fighters. Dassault Rafale is mentioned in the letter as a potential fighter for
the program. The project has been named as HX Fighter Program.[200] The request for information concerning the program was
sent in early 2016; the five responses were received in November 2016. A call
for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to
take place in 2021.[201]
Malaysia
The Rafale was a contender for the replacement of the Royal Malaysian
Air Force's (RMAF) Mikoyan MiG-29, with a requirement to equip
three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighter aircraft with an estimated budget of
RM6 billion to RM8 billion (US$1.84 billion to
US$2.46 billion). The other competitors for the program were the
Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing
F/A-18/F Super Hornet and Saab JAS 39 Gripen.[202] In July 2017, the plan to acquire new jet fighters was
suspended with the Royal Malaysian Air Force looking instead to buy new
maritime patrol aircraft and advanced trainers with light attack capabilities
to confront the growing threat of Islamist militants in the Southeast Asian
region.[203][204]
Spain
Spain is looking for 68-72 fighters to replace its F/A-18A/B
Hornets. Possible participants in the tender will be the Eurofighter Typhoon,
Dassault Rafale, Boeing F/A-18 E/F Advanced Super Hornet and Lockheed F-35
Lightning II.[205]
Switzerland
In February 2007, it was reported that Switzerland was
considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its ageing Northrop F-5 Tiger IIs.[206] The one-month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen
Airforce Base consisting of approximately 30 evaluation flights. The Rafale
along with the JAS 39 Gripen and the Typhoon were to be evaluated.[207] Although a leaked Swiss Air Force evaluation report
revealed that the Rafale won the competition on technical grounds,[N 6] on 30 November 2011 the Swiss Federal Council announced
that it was planning to buy 22 Gripen NGs due to the aircraft's lower
acquisition and maintenance costs.[209] Due to a referendum,
this purchase never happened.
In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030
program: The Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35. The program has a budget
of US$8 billion but includes not only combat aircraft but also
ground-based air defense systems.[210][211]
In October 2018, it was reported by Jane's that the Swiss Air
Force may be limited to purchasing a single-engine fighter for budgetary
reasons. However a bidder representing a European company bidding on the plan
stated that Swiss Air Force pilots are "so enamoured of their Hornets that
they will be inclined to select another two-seat fighter".[212]
The Rafale was to perform demonstrations for Swiss personnel
at Payerne Air Base in
May 2019. The aircraft was to be evaluated in a series of eight flights, for
comparison to flights performed by other bidders.[213]
United Arab Emirates
In 2009, the United Arab
Emirates Air Force was interested in an upgraded version of the
Rafale with more powerful engines and radar, and advanced air-to-air missiles.[214] In October 2011, Dassault was confident that a US$10
billion deal for up to 60 Rafale aircraft would be signed.[215] However, Deputy Supreme Commander of the Union Defence
Force, Mohammed bin
Zayed Al Nahyan, in November 2011 called the French offer
"uncompetitive and unworkable";[216] France had in 2010 asked the UAE to pay
US$2.6 billion of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale.[217] Consequently, the UAE started to explore a purchase of the
Eurofighter Typhoon[218] or the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.[219]
The newspaper La Tribune reported in February
2012, that the UAE was still considering the US$10-billion deal for 60 Rafales.
Interoperability among the Gulf air forces has led to renewed interest in the
Rafale from Qatar and Kuwait.[220] In January 2013, President Hollande stated that he would
be discussing the potential sale of Rafale to the UAE during an official visit.[221] In December 2013, it was announced that UAE had decided
not to proceed with a deal for the supply of defence and security services,
including the supply of Typhoon aircraft.[222] In September 2014 it was announced that the UAE could
acquire 40 Rafales in addition to upgrades to its existing Mirage 2000s.[223] In November 2015, Reuters reported that Major General
Ibrahim Nasser Al Alawi, commander of the UAE Air Force and Air Defence, had
confirmed that the UAE was in final negotiations to purchase 60 Rafales.[224] In 2019 was conducted a series of Rafale F3-R trials at
air base 104 at Al Dahfra, in the United Arab Emirates.[225]
Failed bids
The Rafale has been marketed for export to various countries.
Various commentators and industry sources have highlighted the high cost of the
aircraft as detrimental to the Rafale's sales prospects. Its acquisition cost
is roughly US$100 million (2010),[226] while its operational cost hovers around US$16,500 (2012)
for every flight-hour.[227] The Saab JAS Gripen, in comparison, costs only US$4,700
per flight-hour to operate.[227] According to a 2009 article by the Institute for Defense
Studies and Analysis, unlike the American government and its relationship with
Boeing and Lockheed Martin, the lack of communication between the French
government and Dassault has hampered a worldwide cooperative sales effort, as
demonstrated by the case with Morocco in 2007.[228]
Belgium
France has offered economic and technology partnerships to sell
Rafale to replace Belgium's fleet of 34 aging F-16A/B MLU fighters starting in
2023 as part of the air combat capability successor program. Other competitors
are Eurofighter Typhoon and Lockheed Martin F-35.[229]
On 25 October 2018, Belgium officially selected the offer for 34
F-35As to replace the current fleet of around 54 F-16s. In the accompanied news
conference, government officials stated that the decision to select the F-35
came down to the price, and later stated that "The offer from the
Americans was the best in all our seven valuation criteria". The total
purchasing price for the aircraft and its support until 2030 totaled €4
billion, €600 million cheaper than the initially budgeted €4.6 billion. First
deliveries are scheduled to take place in 2023.[230][231]
Brazil
In June 2008, the Brazilian Air Force issued
a request for information on the following aircraft: F/A-18E/F Super Hornet,
F-16 Fighting Falcon, Rafale, Su-35, Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon.[232] In October 2008, the Brazilian Air Force selected three
finalists for F-X2 – Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F.[233] On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final
evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the
other two contenders based on unit and operating costs.[234][235] In February 2011, the press announced that the new
president of Brazil, Dilma Rousseff,
had decided in favour of the American F-18.[236] After much delay due to budget constraints,[237] in December 2013 the Brazilian government selected the
Gripen NG in a US$5 billion deal to equip the country's air force.[238]
Canada
The Rafale has been amongst various aircraft proposed to meet
Canada's need for a modern jet fighter to replace the aging McDonnell
Douglas CF-18 Hornet of the Royal Canadian Air
Force.[239] In 2005, according to Canada.com, a report compiled by
Canada's Defence Department reviewing several competing aircraft had noted
concerns over the Rafale's interoperability with US forces; Dassault had also
then been unable to confirm engine performance during cold weather conditions.[240] In July 2010, the Canadian government announced the
replacement for the CF-18 was to be the F-35 Lightning II, as the country has been a
partner in the Joint Strike
Fighter program since 1997 and a Tier 3 partner for the F-35
since 2002.[241][242]
Then in December 2012, the Canadian government announced that
the purchase of the F-35 had been abandoned due to greatly escalating costs,
and that a fresh procurement process would begin.[243] In January 2013, Dassault responded to a request for
information from the Canadian government and announced its readiness to enter a
future competition for a future fighter procurement.[244] Various aircraft are to be considered to meet the
requirement, including the F-35.[245] In January 2014, it was reported that Dassault offered a
contract with full transfer of technology to allow Canada to perform its own
support and upgrades, thereby lowering long-term service costs.[246][247] In November 2018, Dassault withdrew from the competition,
reportedly over concerns that interoperability and intelligence sharing
requirements, particularly with U.S. forces, were too extensive, complicated by
the fact that France is not a member of the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing community.[248][249]
Kuwait
In February 2009, French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was
considering buying up to 28 Rafales.[250] In October 2009, during a visit to Paris, the Kuwaiti
Defence Minister expressed his interest in the Rafale and said that he was
awaiting terms from Dassault.[251] Islamist lawmakers in the Kuwaiti national assembly
threatened to block such a purchase, accusing the Defence Minister of lack of
transparency and being manipulated by business interests.[252] In January 2012, the French Defence Minister said that
both Kuwait and Qatar were waiting to see if the UAE first purchased the Rafale
and that Kuwait would look to buy 18–22 Rafales.[253] However, on 11 September 2015, Eurofighter announced that
an agreement had been reached with Kuwait for the supply of 28 Typhoons.[254][255]
Libya
In January 2007, the French newspaper Journal du
Dimanche reported that Libya sought 13 to 18 Rafales "in a deal
worth as much as US$3.24 billion".[256] In December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi declared
Libya's interest in the Rafale,[257] but no order was placed. French Rafales later attacked
targets in Libya as part of the international military intervention during
the 2011 Libyan civil war.[258]
Singapore
In 2005, the Republic of
Singapore Air Force embarked on its Next Generation Fighter
(NGF) programme to replace its fleet of ageing A-4SU
Super Skyhawks. A number of options were considered and the Defence
Science & Technology Agency (DSTA) conducted a detailed
technical assessment, as well as simulations and other tests to determine the
final selection. Following this, the original list of competitors was reduced
to the final two – Dassault Rafale and the F-15SG Strike Eagle.
In December 2005, Singapore ordered 12 F-15SG aircraft.[259] According to Defense Industry Daily, one major
reason for the selection was that, while the Rafale had superior aerodynamics,
it lacked the range and a capable radar, and had insufficient weapons and
sensor integration.[260]
Others
In 2002, the Republic of
Korea Air Force chose the F-15K
Slam Eagle over the Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon and
Sukhoi Su-35 for its 40 aircraft F-X Phase 1 fighter
competition.[261]
During 2006, while there was potentially trouble with
Anglo-American negotiations over the F-35 Lightning II, there was talk of
purchasing the Rafale M for Britain's Royal Navy.[262] However, in May 2012, after having abandoned the
F-35B STOVL version in favour of the
F-35C CATOBAR variant in October 2010, the UK
reverted to purchasing the F-35B.[263][264]
In late 2007, La Tribune reported that a
prospective US$2.85 billion sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government
selecting the F-16C/D instead.[265][266][267] While French Defense Minister Herve Morin labelled the
aircraft as overly sophisticated and too costly, defense analysists have said
that miscalculations of the offer price by the DGA and hesitations about
financing were detrimental to the negotiations.[267][268]
In February 2009, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its
ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars.[269] In December 2012, Oman placed an order for 12 Typhoons,
after reports surfaced that the country had preference for the fighter in 2010.[270][271]
Variants
Rafale B/C and M
Rafale A
Rafale D
Dassault used this designation (D for discrète) in
the early 1990s to emphasiae the new semi-stealthy design features.[272]
Rafale B F3-R
Two-seater version for the French Air Force.[39] "It can operate with the Talios targeting pod (45
ordered by French army will delivered between 2019 and 2023)."[273]
Rafale C F3-R
Rafale M F3-R
Same as Rafale C F3-R but Carrier-borne version for the French Naval Aviation,
which entered service in 2001. For carrier operations, the M model has a strengthened
airframe, longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude, larger tailhook between the engines, and a
built-in boarding ladder. Consequently, the Rafale M weighs about 500 kg
(1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C.[39][274] It is the only non-US fighter type cleared to operate from
the decks of US carriers, using catapults and their arresting gear, as demonstrated in 2008 when
six Rafales from Flottille 12F integrated into the USS Theodore
Roosevelt Carrier Air Wing interoperability exercise.[275]
Rafale N
Originally called the Rafale BM, was a planned missile-only
two-seater version for the Aéronavale.[52] Budgetary and technical constraints have been cited as
grounds for its cancellation.[26]
Rafale R
Rafale DM
Rafale EM
Rafale DH
Rafale EH
Rafale B, C, M F4 ( first step 4.1, second
step 4.2)
It will upgrade radar (F4.1), as well as improved capabilities
in the Helmet-Mounted Display and AASM 1000 kg, OSF (long range
optoelectronics system) will be receive an IRST( Infrared Search and Track )
for detecting and identifying airborne stealth targets at long range (F4.1), it
will be more effective in network-centric warfarev, more data exchange and
satellite communication and will launch small (F4.2) . It as be ordered in
2019.:All 180 French Rafale B,C,M will be upgraded to F4.1 in 2022 and F4.2 in
2027,[273][279] moreover a further 30 aircraft at the full F4 standard
(F4.2) will be ordered in 2023 and delivered between 2027 and 2030.[280]
Specifications
General characteristics
·
Crew: 1–2
·
Length: 15.27 m (50.1 ft)
·
Height: 5.34 m (17.5 ft)
·
Wing
area: 45.7 m2 (492 ft2)
·
Empty weight:
10,300 kilograms (22,700 lb) (B)[72][294]
9,850 kilograms (21,720 lb) (C)[72][294]
10,600 kilograms (23,400 lb) (M)[72][294] ()
10,300 kilograms (22,700 lb) (B)[72][294]
9,850 kilograms (21,720 lb) (C)[72][294]
10,600 kilograms (23,400 lb) (M)[72][294] ()
·
Loaded
weight: 15,000 kilograms
(33,000 lb) ()
·
Fuel
capacity: 4,700 kg
(10,400 lb) internal for single-seater (C); 4,400 kg (9,700 lb)
for two-seater (B)
o Dry thrust: 50.04 kN (11,250 lbf) each
Performance
o Low altitude: Mach 1.1 (1,390 km/h; 750 knots)
·
Combat radius: >1,852 km (>1,000 nmi) on
penetration mission with two CFTs (2,300 L), three tanks (5,700 L), two
SCALP-EG and two MICA AAMs.
Armament
·
Hardpoints: 14 for Air Force versions (Rafale B/C),
13 for Navy version (Rafale M) with a capacity of 9,500 kg
(20,900 lb) external fuel and ordnance and provisions to carry
combinations of:
o Missiles: ** Air-to-air:
§ Magic II
§ MBDA MICA IR
or EM
§ MBDA Meteor (planned)
o Air-to-ground:
§ MBDA Storm Shadow/SCALP-EG
§ AASM-Hammer (SBU-38/54/64)
§ GBU-12 Paveway II,
GBU-22 Paveway III, GBU-24 Paveway III, GBU-49 Enhanced Paveway II
§ AS-30L
o Air-to-surface:
§ MBDA AM 39-Exocet anti-ship
missile
o Nuclear Deterrence:
§ ASMP-A nuclear missile
§ Up to 5 drop tanks
Avionics
·
Thales SPECTRA Electronic
Warfare system.
·
Thales/SAGEM-OSF Optronique Secteur Frontal infra-red search and track (IRST)
system
Rafale In India
The chief of Indian Air Force
(IAF) Air Chief Marshal RKS Bhadauria
said that first Rafale fighter jets will be seen in Indian skies only by
the end of May 2020.
Bhaduaria was addressing a press conference here ahead of the IAF Day that will be observed on October 8.
Responding to a query by IANS, Bhadauria said that India will receive the first four of the 36 Rafale fighter jets by May 2020.
"By May 2020, we will be receiving four Rafale fighter jets.
Bhaduaria was addressing a press conference here ahead of the IAF Day that will be observed on October 8.
Responding to a query by IANS, Bhadauria said that India will receive the first four of the 36 Rafale fighter jets by May 2020.
"By May 2020, we will be receiving four Rafale fighter jets.
Defence Minister Rajnath Singh Worshiping Rafale
Defence Minister Rajnath Singh received the first of 36 Rafale
fighter jets and flew a sortie in the MMRCA fighter jet from a French airbase
in Paris to gain first-hand experience of the aircraft. Rafale is handed over
to Singh on the foundation day of the Indian Air Force. The first Rafale bears
a tail number ‘RB 01', where 'RB' stands for Air Chief Marshal R.K.S.
Bhadauria, who played an important role in negotiations for procuring 36 Rafale
jets in the flyaway condition.
India had signed an inter-governmental agreement with France in
September 2016 for procurement of 36 Rafale fighter jets at a cost of around Rs
58,000 crore. The aircraft is capable of carrying a range of potent weapons and
missiles and the first squadron of the aircraft will be deployed at Ambala air
force station, considered one of the most strategically located bases of the
IAF. The Indo-Pak border is around 220 km from there. The second squadron of
Rafale will be stationed at Hasimara base in West Bengal.
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